Cultural Environment of IB

The European Identity by Dr. Christine Leitner

In the Millennium Declaration from 1999 adopted at the European Council in Helsinki, you will find the statement that “[...] the Union’s citizens are bound together by common values such as freedom, tolerance, equality, solidarity and cultural diversity [...]” [9].  Dr. Christine Leitner addresses the question of the existence of a single European identity, arguing that the European Council's Millennium Declaration wants to define a European cultural identity as a set of values shared by all citizens of the Union. A survey, carried out 1998 by Eurobarometer, measured how strong the European cultural identity was amongst the European population. The findings showed, that 74% of people, who thought their country's EU membership was a bad thing, identified solely with their nationality. In comparison to that, only 27% of people, who thought their country's EU integration was a good thing, did not identify as European. Nearly nine out of ten people in the EU feel an attachment to their country. However, only around half of EU citizens feel attached to Europe in general. Despite economic integration, as well as the EU's attempt to adhere to its cultural policy (both measures for the attempt of international conflict prevention), this is a difficult issue and leads to a problem of cultural identity.
To fight the destabilization of the EU due to the cultural identity conflict, innovative approaches are needed. According to Christine Leitner, we should aim to interact with other cultures, go beyond the awareness of our own cultural heritage and produce something greater through cooperation and collaboration [9].

Regional differences within the European Union

European National Institutes for Culture (EUNIC)

EUNIC is a non-profit organization, that was founded in 2006. Back then it contained 19 member states. Today it consists out of 39 institutions in 29 member states (EU27 + Ukraine and UK), who cooperate on projects in the field of inter-cultural dialogue, multilingualism, arts and civil society. EUNIC aims to create effective networks to increase the visibility of cultural diversity within the EU. It is also advocating the value of culture in international Relations, sharing the Union’s values with third countries through cultural activities and implementing cultural projects in partnership with the European Commission [14][15].

Corporate Culture

Corporate culture is a set of beliefs and behaviors that determine how employees and management interact and deal with business transactions. Although that definition might seem concrete, there is no handbook on how to assimilate into a corporate culture, rather these behaviors and social conduct norms of an organization are implied, and  bred through the collective input and individual values of every member of an organization. Organizations foster a culture depending on their goals and orientation, for example a business that is focused on cutting edge technology would try to foster a culture of innovation through its ideology and practices. Corporate culture reflects the beliefs but also the goals of any given organization. 

The development of corporate culture is not independent of the country of operations. National culture and traditions play a significant role in shaping corporate culture. Especially with the rise of globalization and of MNEs, corporate culture has to take into consideration a plethora of factors. A company operating on a multinational level has to facilitate a myriad of cultures and customs into its operations. This cross-cultural experience is a key aspect of corporate culture and its purpose of bringing cohesion to a multinational organization [22].

Cultural barriers

Cultural barriers are differences in the nature of political systems, institutions, administrations, businesses, as well as in the mentality and behaviour of politicians, officials, employers and employees, citizens.. They are based on differences in cultures, values, rules of behaviour, norms and beliefs to which the communicants belong [8].

For the European Union to function as one, a political effort is needed, supported by social and cultural change. The main challenge is to ensure that differences between national cultures are not perceived as something that distinguishes Europeans from one another, but as a positive expression of multiculturalism, which in turn can bring benefits from a socio-economic perspective [18]. Therefore, overcoming barriers requires not only an understanding of cultural differences and their implications, but also a holistic reorganization of intercultural framework.

The creation of cultural models aims to further our understanding and deepen our insight of culture. In this portion of the wiki dedicated to culture, we would be remised if we were to not mention two of the most significant cultural models to be formulated (Edgar Schein’s three-layer model and Edward T. Hall’s iceberg) and the Dimension-Models of Hall, Hofstede and Trompenaars.

Edgar Schein's 3 layers

The second layer focuses on what can be determined as what is on the edge between what is conscious and unconscious. Schein’s calls this second layer "Values". These values try to investigate how members belonging to a certain cultural structure would react in a given situation and the reason behind it. These reactions are tightly linked to the values of a culture. In order to better identify this set of values, we have to observe the values of specific members of that cultural group. Every member of the organization contributes its own part, through its own attitudes and actions, to this construct of values. Therefore, the values of a corporate culture are the collection of the individual values of the members / employees. 

The third layer is named "Assumed Values". This layer is the collection of beliefs and axioms that are unconscious and invisible. Although they may be hidden, assumed values greatly influence the culture of a corporate construct. Assumed values can be described as the personal aspects of each member of the organization. The practice of these assumed values doesn’t refer to a communicated effort between the members of the organization to act in a certain manner, but they are rather unspoken, predefined roles that each member of this cultural group plays when it comes to decision making [23]. 

Edward T. Hall's Iceberg

If we were to apply this concept, of culture seen as an iceberg, to any corporate structure and culture, we are able to identify a lot of similarities. Corporate culture much as any other culture, does indeed have a deep plane of cultural existence. What we often perceive on a surface level (the tip of the iceberg) is often only a small portion of the underlying culture. As it happens in any culture, there are deeply rooted beliefs and traditions, which are hard to see from a distance. These beliefs and traditions are visible, only when exposed to this culture, to the ethical systems that are in place, the deeper values and beliefs. [42]

Edward Hall described culture as follows:

“Culture can be likened to a giant, extraordinary complex, subtle computer. Its programs guide the actions and responses of human being in every walk of life. This process requires attention to everything people do to survive, advance in the world, and gain satisfaction from life" [24].

Cross-cultural differences have a huge impact on our communication, especially in a business world. The way we socialize, interpret the information and develop interpersonal connections depends on our values, norms and our cultures characteristics. The study of cross-cultural analysis encompasses the fields of anthropology, sociology, psychology and communication. The combination of cross-cultural analysis and its impact on business communication is a relatively new field. The cultural differences are important to understand, as they aren’t static as the world changes and the cultural environment changes under its influence.

Hall is best known for the three main categories that analyse and interpret differences in communication and interaction between cultures: context, space and time. The four Dimension of Edward T. Hall are: High-context vs. low-context communication; Monochronic vs. polychronic time; Proxemics and Communication styles [25].

Hofstede's 6-Dimension Model 

POWER DISTANCE INDEX (PDI)

This dimension expresses the degree to which the less powerful members of a society accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. The fundamental issue here is how a society handles inequalities among people.

People in societies exhibiting a large degree of Power Distance accept a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and that needs no further justification. In societies with low Power Distance, people strive to equalise the distribution of power and demand justification for inequalities of power.

INDIVIDUALISM VERSUS COLLECTIVISM (IDV)

The high side of this dimension, called Individualism, can be defined as a preference for a loosely-knit social framework in which individuals are expected to take care of only themselves and their immediate families.

Its opposite, Collectivism, represents a preference for a tightly-knit framework in society in which individuals can expect their relatives or members of a particular ingroup to look after them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. A society’s position on this dimension is reflected in whether people’s self-image is defined in terms of “I” or “we.”

MASCULINITY VERSUS FEMININITY (MAS)

The Masculinity side of this dimension represents a preference in society for achievement, heroism, assertiveness, and material rewards for success. Society at large is more competitive. Its opposite, Femininity, stands for a preference for cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak and quality of life. Society at large is more consensus-oriented.

In the business context Masculinity versus Femininity is sometimes also referred to as “tough versus tender” cultures.

UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE INDEX (UAI)

The Uncertainty Avoidance dimension expresses the degree to which the members of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity. The fundamental issue here is how a society deals with the fact that the future can never be known: should we try to control the future or just let it happen?

Countries exhibiting strong UAI maintain rigid codes of belief and behaviour, and are intolerant of unorthodox behaviour and ideas. Weak UAI societies maintain a more relaxed attitude in which practice counts more than principles.

LONG TERM ORIENTATION VERSUS SHORT TERM NORMATIVE ORIENTATION (LTO)

Every society has to maintain some links with its own past while dealing with the challenges of the present and the future. Societies prioritise these two existential goals differently.

Societies who score low on this dimension, for example, prefer to maintain time-honoured traditions and norms while viewing societal change with suspicion.

Those with a culture which scores high, on the other hand, take a more pragmatic approach: they encourage thrift and efforts in modern education as a way to prepare for the future.

In the business context, this dimension is referred to as “(short-term) normative versus (long-term) pragmatic” (PRA). In the academic environment, the terminology Monumentalism versus Flexhumility is sometimes also used.

INDULGENCE VERSUS RESTRAINT (IVR)

Indulgence stands for a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human drives related to enjoying life and having fun. Restraint stands for a society that suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norm [27].

Trompenaars’ 7-Dimension Model

2. Individualism vs. Communitarianism

How do people work as a team or individually as individuals? Do people want to have acknowledgement for their achievements or is it more important for them to be just part of a group?

“Individualistic cultures believe that your outcomes in life are the result of your choices. In these cultures, decision-makers make decisions and they don’t need to consult to do so. Thus, decision-makers can make decisions at speed. It is your responsibility to look after your happiness and fulfilment. Individualistic cultures include Canada, the U.S., the U.K., and Australia.” [28]

“…Cultures based on communitarianism believe your quality of life is better when we help each other. Thus, these cultures organise themselves around groups. There is a strong sense of loyalty within the group. As a result of this group tendency, decision-making is slower as everyone gives input. Job turnover will be lower due to high group loyalty. The group gets rewarded for high performance, not the individual. Communitarian cultures include Japan, much of Africa, China, and Latin American countries” [28].

3. Neutral vs. Affective

Do people show their emotions?

“In a neutral culture, people tend not to share their emotions. Emotions are of course felt by the individual, but they are kept in check and controlled. Observing these people you would consider them cool and rational. Neutral cultures include Germany, Netherlands, and the U.K.” [27].

“…In an effective culture, people tend to share their emotions, even in the workplace. In an effective culture, it is considered normal that people share their emotions. Examples of affective cultures include Italy, Spain, and Latin America.” [28]

 4. Specific vs. Diffuse

How much do people separate their professional life from their private life?

“In a specific culture, people tend to keep their personal and work life separate. These cultures don’t see an overlap between the two spheres. These cultures tend to be schedule focussed and direct and to the point in their communications. They focus more on the goal than the relationship. Examples of specific cultures include Germany, the U.S., the U.K., and the Netherlands.” [28]

“…In a diffusive culture, people tend to see their personal and work lives as interconnected. These cultures believe that objectives can be better achieved when relationships are strong. As such, in these cultures work colleagues socialise with each other outside of work more. These cultures are courteous and respect age, status, and background more. Examples of diffusive cultures include China, India, Argentina, and Spain”[27].

5. Achievement vs. Ascription

Is status given to us or do we need to prove ourselves to achieve it?

“In an achievement culture, you earn status through knowledge or skill. Job titles are earned and reflect this knowledge and skill. Anyone can challenge a decision if they have a logical argument. Examples of achievement cultures include the U.S., the U.K., Germany, and Scandinavia.” [28]

“…In an ascription culture, you are given status based on who you are. This could be because of your social status, your education, or your age. You earn respect in these cultures because of your commitment to the organization, not your abilities. A decision will only be challenged by someone with higher authority. Examples of ascription cultures include Japan, Italy, and France.”[28]

6. Sequential time vs. Synchronous time

Do things get finished many at the same time or do things get only done one at a time?

“In a sequential time culture, time is very important. People like projects to be completed in stages.  Time is money, and so it is important that each stage is finished on time. It is rude to be late for meetings in these cultures. Examples of sequential time cultures include the U.S., the U.K., and Germany.” [28]

“…In a synchronous time culture, people see the past, present, and future as interwoven. Because of this people do several things at once, as time is interchangeable. This results in plans and deadlines being flexible. It also explains why punctuality is less important. Examples of synchronous time cultures include Japan, India, and Mexico.” [28]

7. Internal direction vs. External direction

Are we controlled by the environment or do we actually control it?

“In an internal-directed culture, people believe that they can control their environment to achieve their goals. The focus is selfish (one’s self, one’s team, and one’s organization). Winning is important in these cultures and aggressive personalities are thus prevalent. Examples of internal direction cultures include the U.S., the U.K., and Australia.” [28]

“…In an external culture, people believe that they must work with their environment to achieve their goals. In these cultures winning isn’t as important as maintaining a strong relationship. They focus on environmental factors e.g. relationships to achieve their goals. Examples of external direction cultures include China, Russia, and Saudi Arabia.” [28]

Based on Hofstede’s and Trompenaars’ research on culture, the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) project started in 1992. The project revolves around the collection of data on cultural values, management and leadership styles, involving 150 researchers and 18000 managers from 62 countries. The GLOBE 2004 study was the culminate of a ten-year quantitative survey-based study of societal culture, organizational culture, and attributes of effective leadership in 62 societies around the world. Groundbreaking in scale and scope, the project features results based on data from 17,300 middle managers in 951 organizations in the food processing, financial services, and telecommunications industries as well as archival measures of country economic prosperity and the physical and psychological well-being of the cultures studied. The study redefined scholarly understanding of how culture and leadership vary by nation. This project uses a scale from 1 to 7 to rank countries, based on nine different cultural dimensions. These dimensions and what they represent can be seen and found in the video provided above [29]

During the 1980s in the last decade of the cold war, globalization became even more prominent. Boosted by an increase in trade and the systematic privatization of previously state owned companies, globalization introduced a new age for trading but also for cultural understanding. With the revolution in telecommunications and the widespread use of the internet, trading between nations became easier than ever. This increase in trading was further facilitated by the introduction of NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement), which was replaced in 2021 by USMCA (U.S. – Mexico – Canada Agreement). For Europe, trade with those countries is currently being negotiated under the TTIP (Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership) proposal. 

With this increase in trade the importance of culture and especially corporate culture became even more apparent. Globalization plays a significant role in how we perceive culture. Trading between different nationalities, languages, across cultural and social structures and barriers, values and ethical systems poses great challenges to overcome. For this purpose, it is of great significance to understand the role of culture in modern organizations (corporate culture) as it becomes a useful tool to further investigate the concepts of cross-cultural risk, leadership, organization and communication [30].

Further information can be found on the designated Wiki Page: Globalization and Europeanization.

The Americanization of European companies

Americanization refers to the transfer of values, technologies, patterns of organization, symbols, and norms from the United States to Europe. The aim is to learn from American companies to improve the European economy, particularly during times when the US excels in various fields. However, cultural transfer is a slow process that doesn't happen overnight. Americanization, therefore, stands for the transfer of core values that are more established in the US than in Europe.

There are many values and beliefs that American and European businesses share, but there are also several differences. For instance: 

1. American culture places a high emphasis on a positive allocation of economies in society as well as in an individual's life.

2. American culture tends to have a strong belief in the opportunities that competition can create for individuals, which will eventually add up to the best for all members of society.

3. Individualism is strongly supported, as opposed to communalism or shared values.

4. There is a trend towards the commercialization of human relations.

First wave of Americanization

Before 1914, European machines used to be based on handicraft work, whereas American companies used larger lots of identical machinery that did not require additional work by individuals. These were the pre-conditions for mass production. After World War I in 1918, Europe looked to the US as the leading economic power in the world. As a first attempt to gain new economic success after the war, European businesses tried to construct larger units, such as the Vereinigte Stahlwerke in Germany. This European wave of cartelization can be seen as an answer to the American treatment of size, which had much larger businesses.
 

The second wave of Americanization – The Marshall Plan

After World War II, Europe was in desperate need to recover and reconstruct its economic force. America contributed not only financial aid, but also made its impact on the new European economy. Part of the Marshall Plan was to liberalize European trades and exchanges. A major change was a new approach to competition. The Americans put a high emphasis on de-cartelization of European businesses. Also, mass-production American-style was introduced. This meant not only a high throughput of industrial organization, but also mass distribution which Europe was not very familiar with.

Self-Service and IT

Another distributing style European businesses learned from the US was self-service. Self-service was implemented in the 1960s in Europe. Self-service is more rational, cheaper and less personnel-intensive than a traditional shop. The core of self-service is advertising and the anonymity of the customer. Nowadays, information technology (IT) has established itself as a sector of American triumph. Many innovations in this sector came from the US. Design, behaviour, language etc. – nearly all issues connected to IT were established in the US and adopted by European companies [31].

Finance and Privatization 

Another Americanised sector is finance. Small businesses in the Anglo-Saxon economic world have quite easy access to bank credits, whereas small and even medium-sized businesses in Europe have little connection to the stock exchange. The American attitude tends to put banking institutions at the forefront. Another typical American way of doing business is the privatization of businesses. Privatization means that monopolies have to be crushed and companies can enhance their competitiveness. Furthermore, companies gain more control of their businesses, as they are not regulated by the state anymore. This can be seen especially in air transport and telecommunications [32].

Five important aspects of Americanization need to be brought up:

1. Language: The widespread use of English in the business world is another aspect of Americanization. English is now the international language of business and commerce, and it is often used as a common language between companies from different countries. This trend has been further accelerated by the dominance of American companies and their products in the global marketplace.

2. Management techniques: Many European companies have adopted management techniques that were developed in the United States. For example, the concept of total quality management, which originated in Japan but was popularized in the United States, has been widely adopted by European companies. American management practices, such as the use of performance metrics and the emphasis on continuous improvement, have also been influential.

3. Branding and advertising: American companies have long been known for their innovative and effective advertising campaigns, and many European companies have followed. The use of celebrity endorsements, catchy slogans, and product placement in movies and TV shows are just a few examples of American advertising techniques that have been adopted by European companies.

4. Consumer culture: Americanization has also contributed to the development of a consumer culture in Europe. The growth of shopping malls, fast food restaurants, and chain stores are just a few examples of American-style consumerism that have become increasingly popular in Europe. This trend has been further accelerated by the growth of e-commerce and the increasing availability of American products online.

5. Legal systems: The Americanization of European businesses has also had an impact on the legal systems of European countries. For example, the growth of American-style class action lawsuits has led to changes in the legal systems of many European countries. The increasing use of American-style arbitration clauses in contracts is another example of this trend. 

 Overall, Americanization has had a profound impact on European businesses and culture. While there are certainly benefits to adopting American practices and technologies, there are also concerns about the homogenization of global culture and the potential loss of local traditions and values [33].

2. Leadership styles have a wide range. They can range from individual oriented, directive, autocratic, top down or authoritarian to group oriented, participative, democratic, bottom up or egalitarian. As was the case with organization it is very hard for any leadership style to use only one approach, most leadership kinds in practice come from a mixture of styles. Individuals from cultures of high power distance (assertiveness) will tend to be viewed as autocratic and at the same view others as indecisive. With every style of leadership, there are associated problems as well as advantages.

3. Communication is the biggest barrier in any cross-cultural management endeavor. Communication is the key in successful cooperation and coordination in any cross-cultural organization. The de facto lingua franca of our century is English. This poses a problem for managers from the English speaking countries, since it is often the case that they will not invest in learning another language and this limits the capabilities to communicate effectively with foreign colleagues, workers or customers. Another problem is that once the barrier of language is overcome, it is often perceived as the cultural barrier is also overcome, something that is not always true. For both of these problems, preparation and awareness from the side of the manager is always a good start to minimize them [22].

Examples for Cross-cultural Management in practice

The passport to trade 2.0 project

The Passport to Trade 2.0 is a project funded by the European Commission with the aim of providing free online training for European small or medium-sized enterprises and students seeking work and placements abroad. Initially established from 2005 to 2007, a website was created to introduce business culture and etiquette for 31 European countries. The primary goal was to support businesses interested in gaining links with EU business and companies. Existing material was improved and augmented with new material from across the EU, providing highly informational content that covered a wide variety of different aspects of European business-making.

Building on the original project, the Passport 2.0 project develops a real needs analysis based on actual data captured on the website since it was launched in October 2007. The Passport to Trade 2.0 project also emphasizes support for students traveling abroad, looking for work placements or doing international business projects.

The Passport to Trade 2.0 project provides a vast array of informational material in several languages, ensuring that a wide audience has access to it. Communication is key to success in business, and being aware of basic customer needs is critical. If a business knows precisely who their customers are, what they want, and what they expect from them as a company, it is better able to adapt to new situations and customize messages to their customers' preferences [40] [41].

REFERENCES

[1] Pappas, S. & McKelvie, C. (2022) 'What is culture?', LIVESCIENCE, October 17. Available at:
https://www.livescience.com/21478-what-is-culture-definition-of-culture.html (Accessed: 11 May 2023).

[2] Cole, N. L. (2019) 'So What Is Culture, Exactly?', ThoughtCo., August 01. Available at:
https://www.thoughtco.com/culture-definition-4135409 (Accessed: 11 May 2023).

[3] Globalnegotiator (2022) 'Business Culture", GLOBALNEGOTIATOR, Available at:
https://www.globalnegotiator.com/international-trade/dictionary/business-culture/ (Accessed: 11 May 2023).

[4] Strauss, C. & Quinn, N. (1998) A Cognitive Theory of Cultural Meaning, West Nyack: Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139167000 (Accessed: 11 May 2023).

[5] Hofstede Insights (2023) 'Intercultural Management', Hofstede Insights, Available at:
https://hi.hofstede-insights.com/national-culture (Accessed: 11 May 2023).

[6] Collinson, S., Narula, R. & Rugman, A. M. (2020) International Business, Harlow, England: Pearson

[7] European Comission (2016) Joint communication to the European Parlament and the council. Towards an EU strategy for international cultural relations. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:52016JC0029&rid=7 
(Accessed: 10 December 2021).

[8] Unesco (no date ) EU strategy for international cultural relations. Available at:
https://en.unesco.org/creativity/policy-monitoring-platform/eu-strategy-international (Accessed: 9 December 2021).

[9] Leitner, C. (2000) 'Walking the Tightrope – Cultural Diversity in the Context of European Integration',
Archive of European Integration (AEI), 31 August. Available at: http://aei.pitt.edu/823/ (Accessed: 23 May 2023).

[10] Passport to Trade 2.0 (no date) Northern Europe. Available at: https://businessculture.org/northern-europe/
(Accessed: 25 May 2023).

[11] Passport to Trade 2.0 (no date) Southern Europe. Available at: https://businessculture.org/southern-europe/
(Accessed: 25 May 2023).

[12] Passport to Trade 2.0 (no date) Eastern Europe. Available at: https://businessculture.org/eastern-europe/
(Accessed: 25 May 2023).

[13] Passport to Trade 2.0 (no date) Western Europe. Available at: https://businessculture.org/western-europe/
(Accessed: 25 May 2023).

[14] Federal Ministery Republic of Austria (no date) EUNIC. Available at:
https://www.bmeia.gv.at/en/european-foreign-policy/international-cultural-policy/multilateral-cultural-policy/eunic/
(Accessed: 23 May 2023).

[15] EUNIC (no date) EU National Institues for Culture. Available at: https://www.eunicglobal.eu/about (Accessed: 23 May 2023).

[16] Culture Action Europe (no date) Article 151. Available at:
https://cultureactioneurope.org/files/2015/02/CAE-ADVOCACY-GLOSSARY-13.pdf (Accessed: 23 May 2023).

[17] EUR-Lex (no date) Social Policy. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=LEGISSUM:social_policy
(Accessed: 23 May 2023).

[18] Dan, H. (2013). 'Culture in the European Union: Between Barrier and Bond', Romanian Review of International Studies. No. 2/2013 Available at: https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2654651 (Accessed: 23 May 2023).

[19] Passport to Trade 2.0 (no date) Business Culture. Available at: https://businessculture.org/business-culture/
(Accessed: 23 May 2023).

[20] Meyer, E. (2014) 'The culture map: Breaking through the invisible boundaries of global business', May 27. Available at:
https://scholar.google.at/citationsview_op=view_citation&hl=de&user=pimc9cIAAAAJ&citation_for_view=pimc9cIAAAAJ:u5HHmVD_uO8C
(Accessed: 22 May 2023).

[21] Optimational (no date) How Cultural Differences Impact International Businesses. Available at: https://www.optimational.com/blog/international-business-impact-of-cultural-differences/ (Accessed: 23 May 2023).

[22] Tarver, E. (2023) 'Corporate Culture Definition, Characteristics and Importance', Investopedia, 25 April. Available at:
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/corporate-culture.asp (Accessed: 23 May 2023).

[23] Expert Program Management (no date) Edgar Schein's Organizational Culture Model. Available at: https://expertprogrammanagement.com/2022/09/edgar-schein-culture-model/#Organizational_Culture_Definition
(Accessed: 26 May 2023).

[24] Schiller, T. (2013) E.T. Hall’s Statement ‘communication is culture and culture is communication’. Munich: GRIN Verlag

[25] Saylor.Org Academy (no date) '3.2 What Are the Key Methods Used to Describe Cultures?' in International Business. Available at: https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_international-business/s07-02-what-are-the-key-methods-used-.html (Accessed: 26 May 2023).

[26] CFI Team (2020) 'Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory', CFI, 31 May. Available at:

https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/knowledge/other/hofstedes-cultural-dimensions-theory/ (Accessed: 26 May 2023).

[27] Hofstede Insights (no date) Intercultural Management. Available at: https://hi.hofstede-insights.com/national-culture
(Accessed: 26 May 2023).

[28] Expert Program Management (no date) Trompenaars Cultural Dimensions – The 7 Dimensions of Culture. Available at:
https://expertprogrammanagement.com/2017/10/trompenaars-cultural-dimensions/ (Accessed: 26 May 2023).

[29] GLOBE 2020 (no date) An overview of the 2004 study: Understanding the Relationship Between National Culture, Societal Effectiveness and Desirable Leadership Attributes. Available at:
https://www.globeproject.com/study_2004_2007?page_id=data#data (Accessed: 26 May 2023).

[30] International Trade Administration (no date) North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Available at:
https://www.trade.gov/north-american-free-trade-agreement-nafta (Accessed: 26 May 2023).

[31]  Hilger, S. (2012) 'The Americanisation of the European Economy after 1880', EGO European History Online, 14 May. Available at:

http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-and-the-world/model-america/the-americanisation-of-the-european-economy-after-1880-americanisation-of-the-economy-be-vorankundigung2012 (Accessed: 26 May 2023).

[32] Schröter, H. G. (2008). 'Economic culture and ist transfer: an overview of the Americanisation of the European economy,
1900-2005', in European Review of History: Revue europeenne d´histoire (15), 2008, p. 331-344, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/13507480802228457 (Accessed: 26 May 2023).

[33] Wikipedia (no date) Americanization. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americanization#cite_note-:1-13
(Accessed: 26 May 2023).

[34] Erste Group (no date) About us. Available at: https://www.erstegroup.com/en/about-us (Accessed: 26 May 2023).

[35] Wikipedia (no date) Erste Group. Available at: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erste_Group (Accessed: 26 May 2023).

[36] Slovenská Sporiteľňa (no date) Bank Profile. Available at: https://www.slsp.sk/en/information-about-bank/about-bank/bank-profile (Accessed: 26 May 2023).

[37] Telekom Company (2023) 'Deutsche Telekom in Greece', in Telekom Company. Available at: https://www.telekom.com/en/company/worldwide/profile/profile-greece-355824 (Accessed: 26 May 2023).

[38] A1 Telekom Comany (no date) About us. Available at: https://www.a1.group/en/group/about-us (Accessed: 26 May 2023).

[39] A1 Telekom Comany (no date) Bulgaria. Available at: https://www.a1.group/en/group/bulgaria (Accessed: 26 May 2023).

[40] Passport to Trade 2.0 (no date) About. Available at: https://businessculture.org/passport-to-trade-2-0/ (Accessed: 26 May 2023).

[41] Up 2 Europe (no date) Passport to Trade 2.0. Available at:
https://www.up2europe.eu/european/projects/passport-to-trade-2-0_124778.html (Accessed: 26 May 2023).

[42]  Hall, E. T. (1976) Beyond Culture. New York: Anchor Books. 

IMAGES:

Image 1: Dailysabah (2020) 4 EU countries table alternative for Merkel-Macron virus recovery fund. Available at: https://www.dailysabah.com/business/economy/4-eu-countries-table-alternative-for-merkel-macron-virus-recovery-fund (Accessed: 10 December 2023)

Image 2: EUR-Lex (2016) Consolidated version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union PART THREE - UNION POLICIES AND INTERNAL ACTIONS ITLE X - SOCIAL POLICY Article 151 (ex Article 136 TEC). Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A12016E151 (Accessed 10 December 2023)

Image 3: Expert Program Management (2022) Edgar Schein’s Organizational Culture Model. Available at: https://expertprogrammanagement.com/2022/09/edgar-schein-culture-model/#Organizational_Culture_Definition (Accessed 10 December 2023)

Image 4: Sketchbubble (no date) Cultural Iceberg. Available at: https://cdn.sketchbubble.com/pub/media/catalog/product/optimized1/7/8/78f807c0cfce08018ffe5ddf9236fa9f6784215bc3835b904a3ef55db511630a/cultural-iceberg-slide5.png (Accessed 10 December 2023)

Image 5: Bussiness-to-you (2017) Hofstedes Cultural Dimensions. Available at: https://www.business-to-you.com/hofstedes-cultural-dimensions/

Image 6: Expert Program Management (2017) Trompenaars Cultural Dimensions - The 7 Dimensions of Culture. Available at: https://expertprogrammanagement.com/2017/10/trompenaars-cultural-dimensions/ (Accessed 10 December 2023)

Image 7: Edureka (2023) Green and Yellow Modern Business. Available at: https://www.edureka.co/blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Green-and-Yellow-Modern-Business.png (Accessed 10 December 2023)

Image 8: Erste Group (no date) Available at: https://cdn0.erstegroup.com/gemlip/v1/dam/22nxwSovyJjQd2FCXBZ6NbWwUV7A/sk/slsp/common/Footer_images/O_banke/w950_0_0_0_0_0_m_1503671944969.budova_SLSP.jpg (Accessed 10 December 2023)

Image 9: Wordpress (no date) Logo - Deutsche Telekom. Available at: https://www.eco.de/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/logo-deutsche_telekom.png (Accessed 10 December 2023)

Image 10: Wikimedia (no date) Logo A1 Telekom Austria Group. Available at: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Logo_A1_Telekom_Austria_Group.jpg (Accessed 10 December 2023)

Image 11: Hofstede Insights (2023) Country Comparison Tool. Available at: https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-comparison-tool?countries=austria%2Cslovakia (Accessed 10 December 2023)

Image 12: Hofstede Insights (2023) Country Comparison Tool. Available at: https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-comparison-tool?countries=germany%2Cgreece (Accessed 10 December 2023)

Image 13: Hofstede Insights (2023) Country Comparison Tool. Available at: https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-comparison-tool?countries=austria%2Cbulgaria (Accessed 10 December 2023)